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Last updated: 10/13/10
This list includes resources for understanding how
urban stormwater best
management practices (BMPs) and low impact design (LID) effect
stream quality.
Online documents
United States EPA. 2000.
Low Impact Development (LID)
A Literature Review. EPA Document # EPA-841-B-00-005.
Available at:
http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/pubs/LID_litreview.pdf
The Low Impact Development Center, Inc.
Publications list. Available at:
http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/publications.htm
Environmental Services
Division, Department of Environmental Resources, Prince
George's County, Maryland. Revised 2007. Bioretention Manual. Available at:
http://www.princegeorgescountymd.gov/der/esg/bioretention/bioretention.asp
Articles
Brown, Ted. 2010. Can volume-based stormwater criteria make
a difference to receiving stream health? Water Resources
Impact 12(2): 5-8.
Coffman, Larry S. 2000.
Low-impact development design: a new paradigm for stormwater
management mimicking and restoring the natural hydrologic
regime: an alternative stormwater management technology.
Environmental Protection Agency. National Conference on Tools
for Urban Water Resources Management and Protection:
proceedings. Cincinnati, EPA, July 2000, p.
158-67.
Damodaram, Chandana, Marcio H. Giacomoni, C. Prakash Khedun,
Hillary Holmes, Andrea Ryan, William Saour, and Emily M.
Zechman. 2010. Simulation of Combined Best Management
Practices and Low Impact Development for Sustainable
Stormwater Management. Journal of the American Water
Resources Association 46(5): 1-12.
Urbanization causes increased stormwater runoff volumes,
leading to erosion, flooding, and the degradation of instream
ecosystem health. Although Best Management Practices (BMPs)
are used widely as a means for controlling flood runoff
events, Low Impact Development (LID) options have been
proposed as an alternative approach to better mimic the
natural flow regime by using decentralized designs to control
stormwater runoff at the source, rather than at a centralized
location in the watershed. For highly urbanized areas, LID
practices such as rainwater harvesting, green roofs, and
permeable pavements can be used to retrofit existing
infrastructure and reduce runoff volumes and peak flows. This
paper describes a modeling approach to incorporate these LID
practices in an existing hydrologic model to estimate the
effects of LID choices on streamflow. The modeling approach
has been applied to a watershed located on the campus of Texas
A&M University in College Station, Texas, to predict the
stormwater reductions resulting from retrofitting existing
infrastructure with LID technologies. Results demonstrate that
use of these LID practices yield significant stormwater
control for small events and less control for flood events. A
combined BMP-LID approach is tested for runoff control for
both flood and frequent rainfall events.
Davis, AP, et al. 2009.
Bioretention Technology: Overview of Current Practice and
Future Needs. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-ASCE, 135
(3): 109-117.
Abstract: Bioretention, or
variations such as bioinfiltration and rain gardens, has
become one of the most frequently used storm-water
management tools in urbanized watersheds. Incorporating both
filtration and infiltration, initial research into
bioretention has shown that these facilities substantially
reduce runoff volumes and peak flows. Low impact
development, which has a goal of modifying postdevelopment
hydrology to more closely mimic that of predevelopment, is a
driver for the use of bioretention in many parts of the
country. Research over the past decade has shown that
bioretention effluent loads are low for suspended solids,
nutrients, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Pollutant removal
mechanisms include filtration, adsorption, and possibly
biological treatment. Limited research suggests that
bioretention can effectively manage other pollutants, such
as pathogenic bacteria and thermal pollution, as well.
Reductions in pollutant load result from the combination of
concentration reduction and runoff volume attenuation,
linking water quality and hydrologic performance.
Nonetheless, many design questions persist for this
practice, such as maximum pooling bowl depth, minimum fill
media depth, fill media composition and configuration,
underdrain configuration, pretreatment options, and
vegetation selection. Moreover, the exact nature and impact
of bioretention maintenance is still evolving, which will
dictate long-term performance and life-cycle costs.
Bioretention usage will grow as design guidance matures as a
result of continued research and application.
Davis, AP,
et al. 2006. Water quality improvement through bioretention
media: Nitrogen and phosphorus removal. WATER ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH, 78 (3): 284-293.
Abstract: High nutrient inputs and eutrophication continue
to be one of the highest priority water quality problems.
Bioretention is a low-impact development technology that has
been advocated for use in urban and other developed areas.
This work provides an in-depth analysis on removal of
nutrients from a synthetic stormwater runoff by bioretention.
Results have indicated good removal of phosphorus (70 to
85%) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (55 to 65%). Nitrate
reduction was poor (< 20%) and, in several cases, nitrate
production was noted. Variations in flowrate (intensity) and
duration had a moderate affect on nutrient removal. Mass
balances demonstrate the importance of water attenuation in
the facility in reducing mass nutrient loads. Captured
nitrogen can be converted to nitrate between storm events
and subsequently washed from the system. Analysis on the
fate of nutrients in bioretention suggests that accumulation
of phosphorus and nitrogen may be controlled by carefully
managing growing and harvesting of vegetation.
Davis, AP,
et al. 2003. Water quality improvement through bioretention:
Lead, copper, and zinc removal. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH, 75
(1): 73-82
Abstract: Intensive automobile use, weathering of building
materials, and atmospheric deposition contribute lead,
copper, zinc, and other heavy metals to urban and roadway
runoff. Bioretention is a low-impact-development best
management practice that has the potential to improve
stormwater quality from developed areas. The practice
represents a soil, sand, organic matter, and
vegetation-based storage and infiltration facility used in
parking lots and on individual lots to treat runoff.
Investigations using pilot-plant laboratory bioretention
systems and two existing bioretention facilities documented
their effectiveness at removing low levels of lead, copper,
and zinc from synthetic stormwater runoff. Removal rates of
these metals (based on concentration and total mass) were
excellent. reaching close to 100% for all metals under most
conditions, with effluent copper and lead levels mostly less
than 5 mug/L and zinc less than 25 mug/L. Somewhat less
removal was noted for shallow bioretention depths. Runoff
pH, duration, intensity, and pollutant concentrations were
varied, and all had minimal effect on removal. The two field
investigations generally supported the laboratory studies.
Overall, excellent removal of dissolved heavy metals can be
expected through bioretention infiltration. Although the
accumulation of metals is a concern, buildup problems are
not anticipated for more than 15 years because of the low
metal concentrations expected in runoff.
Emerson, CH, Traver, RG. 2008.
Multiyear and seasonal variation of infiltration from
storm-water best management practices. JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION
AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING-ASCE, 134 (5): 598-605
Abstract: Reduction of storm-water volumes through
infiltration is becoming a commonly applied practice in the
effort to mitigate the negative hydrologic impacts commonly
associated with land development. The hydrologic impacts
generally include increases in both the volume and peak flow
rate of runoff along with an associated decrease in
groundwater recharge. Infiltration best management practices
(BMPs) are the foundation of many low impact development and
Green infrastructure practices. As the movement to volume
reduction is a relatively recent concept, there remains a
lack of detailed long-term monitoring data to support the
implementation of storm-water infiltration BMPs. Two
storm-water infiltration BMPs on the campus of
Villanova University located in
Southeastern Pennsylvania have been continuously monitored to determine the long-term and
seasonal variation related to the engineered infiltration of
storm-water runoff. The analysis of continuous monitoring
data indicates that both BMPs show considerable seasonal
variation but exhibit no evidence of a systematic decrease
in performance to date. The seasonal variation of the BMPs
is explained primarily by the temperature dependency of the
viscosity of water.
Gilroy, KL, McCuen, RH. 2009.
Spatio-temporal effects of low impact development practices.
JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGY, 367 (3-4): 228-236.
Abstract: The increase in
land development and urbanization experienced in the US and
worldwide is causing environmental degradation. Traditional
off-site stormwater management does not protect small
streams. To mitigate the negative effects of land
development, best management practices (BMPs) are being
implemented into stormwater management policies for the
purposes of controlling minor flooding and improving water
quality. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of BMPs has not
been extensively studied. The purpose of this research was
to analyze the effects of both location and quantity of two
types of BMPs: cisterns and bioretention pits. A spatio-temporal
model of a microwatershed was developed to determine the
effects of BMPs on single-family, townhome, and commercial
lots. The effects of development and the BMPs on peak runoff
rates and volumes were compared to pre-development
conditions. The results show that cisterns alone are capable
of controlling rooftop runoff for small storms. Both the
spatial location and the volume of BMP storage on a
microwatershed influences the effectiveness of BMPs. The
volume of BMP storage is positively correlated to the
percent reduction in the peak discharge rate and total
runoff volume; however, location is a factor in the peak
reduction and a maximum volume of effective storage for both
hydrologic metrics does exist. These results provide
guidelines for developing stormwater management policies
that can potentially reduce pollution of first-order
streams, lower the cost and maintenance requirements,
enhance aesthetics, and increase safety.
Graham, P,
et al. 2004. The role of water balance modelling in the
transition to low impact development. WATER QUALITY RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF CANADA, 39 (4): 331-342.
Abstract: Low impact
development (LID) is increasingly being viewed by local
governments and developers alike as a viable approach to
stormwater management that can effectively protect aquatic
habitat and water quality. LID relies on distributed runoff
management measures that seek to control stormwater volume
at the source by reducing imperviousness and retaining,
infiltrating and reusing rainwater at the development site.
Early conventional stormwater management practices tended to
focus on stormwater quantity and controlling a few extreme
rainfall events, whereas the more frequent storms, which
represent the majority of total runoff volume, carry most of
the pollutants, and control the geomorphology of streams,
were addressed in stormwater quality design practiced during
the last decade. These frequent events are most effectively
managed with a volume control approach, often described as
stormwater source control or Low impact development (LID).
Such an approach is described in this paper, demonstrating
how water balance modelling can be an effective tool for
evaluating and supporting implementation of LID options such
as bioretention, pervious paving, numerous types of
infiltration systems, rainwater reuse and green roofs. It
also discusses recently developed water balance modelling
software, including an Internet-based planning tool and a
design optimization tool.
Holman-Dodds, Jennifer K., A.
Allen Bradley, and Kenneth W. Potter. 2003. Evaluation of
Hydrologic Benefits of Infiltration Based Urban Storm Water
Management. Journal of
the American Water Resources Association 39(1): 205-215.
ABSTRACT: As watersheds are
urbanized, their surfaces are made less pervious and more
channelized, which reduces infiltration and speeds up the
removal of excess runoff. Traditional storm water management
seeks to remove runoff as quickly as possible, gathering
excess runoff in detention basins for peak reduction where
necessary. In contrast, more recently developed low impact
alternatives manage rainfall where it falls, through a
combination of enhancing infiltration properties of pervious
areas and rerouting impervious runoff across pervious areas
to allow an opportunity for infiltration. In this paper, we
investigate the potential for reducing the hydrologic
impacts of urbanization by using infiltration based, low
impact storm water management. We describe a group of
preliminary experiments using relatively simple engineering
tools to compare three basic scenarios of development: an
undeveloped landscape; a fully developed landscape using
traditional, high impact storm water management; and a fully
developed landscape using infiltration based, low impact
design. Based on these experiments, it appears that by
manipulating the layout of urbanized landscapes, it is
possible to reduce impacts on hydrology relative to
traditional, fully connected storm water systems. However,
the amount of reduction in impact is sensitive to both
rainfall event size and soil texture, with greatest
reductions being possible for small, relatively frequent
rainfall events and more pervious soil textures. Thus, low
impact techniques appear to provide a valuable tool for
reducing runoff for the events that see the greatest
relative increases from urbanization: those generated by the
small, relatively frequent rainfall events that are small
enough to produce little or no runoff from pervious
surfaces, but produce runoff from impervious areas. However,
it is clear that there still needs to be measures in place
for flood management for larger, more intense, and
relatively rarer storm events, which are capable of
producing significant runoff even for undeveloped basins.
Kim, HH; Seagren, EA; Davis,
AP. 2003. Engineered bioretention for removal of nitrate from
stormwater runoff. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH, 75 (4):
355-367.
Abstract: A bioretention unit
is a simple, plant- and soil-based, low-impact treatment and
infiltration facility for treating stormwater runoff in
developed areas. Nitrate, however, is not attenuated in
conventional bioretention facilities. Thus, this study
systematically evaluated a reengineered concept of
bioretention for nitrate removal via microbial
denitrification, which incorporates a continuously submerged
anoxic zone with an overdrain. Experimental studies were
performed in four phases. In the first two phases, column
studies demonstrated that, overall, newspaper is the best
solid-phase electron-donor substrate for denitrification out
of the set studied (alfalfa, leaf mulch compost, newspaper,
sawdust, wheat straw, wood chips, and elemental sulfur)
based on superior nitrate removal and effluent water
quality. The nitrate loading and hydraulic loading studies
in the second phase provided design information. In the
third phase, system viability after 30- and 84-day dormant
periods was evaluated in column studies, demonstrating that
newspaper-supported biological denitrification should be
effective under conditions of intermittent loadings.
Finally, in the fourth phase, pilot-scale bioretention
studies demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed
design, showing nitrate plus nitrite mass removals of up to
80%. These results indicate that engineered bioretention for
the removal of nitrogen from stormwater runoff has the
potential for successful application as an urban stormwater
treatment practice.
Li, H, et
al. 2009. Mitigation of Impervious Surface Hydrology Using Bioretention in North Carolina and Maryland. JOURNAL OF
HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING, 14 (4): 407-415.
Abstract: As an increasingly adopted storm water best
management practice to remedy hydrologic impairment from
urban imperviousness, bioretention facilities need rigorous
field performance research and monitoring to confirm
performance and improve design and maintenance
recommendations. This study investigated hydrologic
performance at six bioretention cells in Maryland [College
Park (CP), a 181 m(2) cell, 50-80 cm media depth, monitored
for 22 events, and Silver Spring (SS), a 102 m(2) cell, 90
cm media depth, monitored for 60 events] and North Carolina
[Greensboro (G1 and G2), each approximately 317 m(2), 120 cm
media depth, both monitored for 46 events, and Louisburg
(L1=surface area of 162 m(2), L2=surface area of 99 m(2));
each had 50-60 cm fill depths, monitored for 31 and 33
events, respectively] over 10-15 month periods. Outflow from
each cell was recorded and inflow was either recorded or
calculated from rainfall data. In Louisburg, L2 was lined
with an impermeable membrane to eliminate exfiltration while
L1 was unlined to allow both exfiltration and
evapotranspiration. Results indicate that bioretention
facilities can achieve substantial hydrologic benefits
through delaying and reducing peak flows and decreasing
runoff volume. A large cell media volume: drainage area
ratio, and adjustments to the drainage configuration appear
to improve the performance. Media layer depth may be the
primary design parameter controlling hydrologic performance.
Performance diminishes as rainfall depths increase and
rainfall durations become longer. Annual water budget
analysis suggests that approximately 20-50% of runoff
entering the bioretention cells was lost to exfiltration and
evapotranspiration.
Maxted,
JR, Shaver, E. 1999. The Use of Retention Basins to Mitigate Stormwater Impacts to Aquatic Life. National Conference on
Retrofit Opportunities for Water Resource Protection in Urban
Environments: Proceedings,
Chicago, IL, February 9-12,
1998. Pp. 6-15.
Rushton, Betty. 1999. Low
Impact Parking Lot Design Reduces Runoff and Pollutant Loads.
Proceedings of the Sixth Biennial Stormwater Research and
Watershed Management Conference, September 14-17, 1999, Tampa,
Florida. Pp. 90-101.
ABSTRACT: An innovative
parking lot at the Florida Aquarium in Tampa, Florida is
being used as a research site and demonstration project to
show how small alterations to parking lot designs can
dramatically decrease runoff and pollutant loads. Three
paving surfaces are compared as well as basins with and
without swales to measure pollutant concentrations and
infiltration. Preliminary results from sixteen storms
indicate that for rainfall less than two centimeters, the
basins with swales and permeable paving have 85 to 95
percent less runoff than the basins without swales, and 60
to 80 percent less runoff than the other basins with swales.
Larger rain events do not show as much difference in runoff
amounts from different paving types but basins with swales
have about 40 percent less runoff than the two basins
without swales. Rainfall water quality and quantity are also
evaluated and rain is found to be a significant input for
inorganic nitrogen. Other water quality data how higher
phosphorus concentrations in basins with vegetated swales,
and higher metal concentrations in basins paved with asphalt
rather than cement or permeable paving. Sediment samples
exhibit the same trends as water quality samples with higher
phosphorus concentrations in basins with swales and higher
metal concentrations in basins paved with asphalt.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and pesticides were
detected in the sediments at almost all sites sampled.
Sansalone,
J; Teng, Z. 2004. In situ partial exfiltration of rainfall
runoff. I: Quality and quantity attenuation. JOURNAL OF
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-ASCE, 130 (9): 990-1007.
Abstract: Rainfall runoff impacted by anthropogenic
activities transports significant quantities of particulate,
aqueous, and complexed constituents. These diffuse,
unsteady, and stochastic event-based loadings are unique
challenges for water quality (concentration, mass) and
quantity control (volume, peak flow). While many
infiltration/exfiltration structural best management
practices (BMPs) or low impact development practices are
implemented, few in situ data sets are examined for actual
events and temporal-based BMP behavior, in part due to costs
of such examinations. Fewer studies provided a statistical
and mechanistic interpretation for event-based BMP
performance. The design, water quality, and quantity
functions of a partial exfiltration reactor (PER) utilizing Fe-coated sand is examined specifically across three water
quality type rainfall-runoff events over a 10-month period.
Reduction of total concentrations for metals (Zn, Pb, Cu,
and Cd), ranged from 24 to 93%, while total mass reductions
ranged from 57 to 98% due to exfiltration. Reduction in
total suspended solids concentrations ranged from 23 to 86%
while reduction in total mass ranged from 69 to 96%.
Chemical oxygen demand concentrations reductions ranged from
37 to 70%. Storm water volume reductions ranged from 55 to
70% through variably saturated exfiltration to surrounding
clayey glacial till soils (K-sat = 10(-6) cm/s), while peak
flow reductions ranged from 36 to 85%. Results of
statistical analysis indicate that a passive downflow
PER is capable of functioning as an in situ water quality and quantity
control BMP for rainfall runoff. Results indicate that as
structural and nonstructural controls are implemented,
monitoring, examination, and understanding of event-based
and life-cycle performance are critical to achieve both
quantity and quality goals.
Shuster,
WD, Gehring, R, Gerken, J. 2007. Prospects for enhanced
groundwater recharge via infiltration of urban storm water
runoff: A case study. JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION, 62 (3): 129-137
Abstract: The rain
garden is an urban storm water best management practice that
is used to infiltrate runoff close to its source, thereby
disconnecting impervious area while providing an avenue for
groundwater recharge. Groundwater recharge may provide
additional benefits to aquatic ecosystems via enhancement of
stream base flow.Yet, soil conditions can impact on certain
aspects of rain garden performance and its provision of
ecosystem services. In the context of a watershed-level
study to determine the effectiveness of decentralized storm
water management, we performed an order 1 soil survey of the
Shepherd Creek watershed (Cincinnati, Ohio) to delineate
soils and identify and describe representative soil pedons,
and then we assessed subsoil saturated hydraulic
conductivity (K-sat) in each of the three dominant subsoils
with qualitative estimation methods and directly with
constant-head permeametry. We next simulated the effect of
subsoil hydrology of a hypothetical implementation of a
parcel-level rain garden on groundwater recharge in this
watershed. Measured subsoil K-sat were overall very low with
a mean of 0.01 cm hr(-1) (4 x 10(-3) in hr(-1)) for Eden
soil and a mean of 0.2 cm hr(-1) (0.08 in hr(-1)) for both
the fine-silty family and Switzerland soils. Compared with
the measured values, qualitative measures overestimated
K-sat and depth of recharge for Eden and fine-silty, and
underestimated the same for Switzerland. Based on median
parcel features and 2004 warm-season storm records, rain
gardens in the fine-silty family and Switzerland subsoils
would be expected to contribute about 6 cm (2.4 in) of
recharge as compared to the 2 cm (0.8 in) expected in Eden
soils. Our results also suggest the highest potential for
abatement of storm water quantity abatement in Eden soils,
with some partitioning of this water to recharge as an added
benefit. Our approach and results form the basis for a
comprehensive understanding of how storm water management
decentralized at the watershed level may positively impact
ecosystem services.
Teng, Z;
Sansalone, J. 2004. In situ partial exfiltration of rainfall
runoff. II: Particle separation. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING-ASCE, 130 (9): 1008-1020.
Abstract: Metal elements or other constituents transported
in urban and transportation land use rainfall runoff are
often adsorbed on or incorporated with entrained particles
that are ubiquitous in such runoff. Infiltration-exfiltration
can be an effective in situ particle separation and quantity
control structural best management practices or low impact
development practices allowing runoff to return to soil
after passive physical-chemical treatment. The in situ
partial exfiltration reactor (PER), which combined the
surface straining of the cementitious porous pavement (CPP)
layer with filtration of oxide coated sand media beneath,
provided control of water quantity and quality. Particle
analyses were carried out for both influent and effluent to
examine filter efficiency as a function of particle size and
hydrology. Influent d(m)/d(p) ratios suggest that the
dominant PER particle separation mechanisms were unsaturated physical-chemical
filtration with the CPP layer functioning as a straining
surface. Particle size distributions were modeled based on a
two-parameter cumulative power-law function. The performance
of the PER as a filter is shown to be a function of the unsteady site hydrology.
Temporal variation in the filter coefficient and the
volumetric particle fraction remaining were directly related
to the unsteady influent loading rate. Particle removal
efficiency by the PER based on concentration ranged from 71 to 96% on a mass-based
concentration and 92-99% on a number based concentration.
Results suggest that a properly designed
PER can provide effective in
situ control for particles and could be combined with or
function separately from source control (i.e., pavement
cleaning or a mass trading framework).
Zhen,
J, et al. 2006. BMP analysis system for watershed-based stormwater management. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND
HEALTH PART A-TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING, 41 (7): 1391-1403.
Abstract: Best Management
Practices (BMPs) are measures for mitigating nonpoint source
(NPS) pollution caused mainly by stormwater runoff.
Established urban and newly developing areas must develop
cost effective means for restoring or minimizing impacts,
and planning future growth. Prince George's County in
Maryland, USA, a fast-growing region in the Washington, DC metropolitan area, has
developed a number of tools to support analysis and decision
making for stormwater management planning and design at the
watershed level. These tools support watershed analysis,
innovative BMPs, and optimization. Application of these
tools can help achieve environmental goals and lead to
significant cost savings. This project includes software
development that utilizes GIS information and technology, integrates BMP processes simulation models,
and applies system optimization techniques for BMP planning
and selection. The system employs the ESRI ArcGIS (c) as the
platform, and provides
GIS-based visualization and
support for developing networks including sequences of land
uses, BMPs, and stream reaches. The system also provides
interfaces for BMP placement, BMP attribute data input, and
decision optimization management. The system includes a
stand-alone BMP simulation and evaluation module, which
complements both research and regulatory nonpoint source
control assessment efforts, and allows flexibility in the
examining various BMP design alternatives. Process based
simulation of BMPs provides a technique that is sensitive to
local climate and rainfall patterns. The system incorporates
a meta-heuristic optimization technique to find the most
cost-effective BMP placement and implementation plan given a
control target, or a fixed cost. A case study is presented
to demonstrate the application of the Prince George's County
system. The case study involves a highly urbanized area in
the Anacostia River (a tributary to
Potomac River) watershed southeast of Washington, DC. An innovative system of
management practices is proposed to minimize runoff, improve
water quality, and provide water reuse opportunities.
Proposed management techniques include bioretention, green
roof, and rooftop runoff collection (rain barrel) systems.
The modeling system was used to identify the most
cost-effective combinations of management practices to help
minimize frequency and size of runoff events and resulting
combined sewer overflows to the
Anacostia River.
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